Everything below concerns certificate of analysis. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2025-12-11. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
临床研究将Tα1用于慢性病毒感染、肿瘤辅助治疗和疫苗佐剂等场景。部分试验报告了免疫学指标改善，但临床终点获益在不同研究中并不一致。系统综述指出，研究间在人群、剂量和联合方案上差异较大，难以汇总结论。因此，Tα1的确切临床地位仍属开放问题，需要更多高质量随机对照试验来澄清。其机制研究也需从体外实验向体内模型推进。
胸腺素α1对免疫系统的影响涉及多种细胞类型。研究表明，它可促进未成熟T细胞向成熟T细胞分化，并增强T细胞对抗原刺激的增殖反应。树突状细胞在Tα1存在下表达更高水平的共刺激分子，从而更有效地呈递抗原。此外，自然杀伤细胞的活性也观察到上升。这些效应并非直接杀伤病原体，而是调节宿主免疫应答的强度与方向。
Several factors accelerate degradation: alkaline pH, elevated temperature, exposure to oxidants, and the presence of residual moisture. Deamidation of asparagine residues and oxidation of methionine are the most commonly reported degradation routes. Because the peptide lacks disulfide bonds, it does not undergo the thiol-related aggregation seen in some other biologics, but physical aggregation can still occur at high concentration. Stability data are product-specific, and extrapolating shelf life between formulations is not reliable.
Lyophilized thymosin alpha-1 is generally stored at or below minus twenty degrees Celsius, protected from moisture and light. Short-term handling at ambient temperature is possible for dry powder, but reconstituted solutions degrade faster and are usually kept at two to eight degrees Celsius with a defined expiry of days rather than weeks. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles should be avoided because they promote aggregation and loss of potency. Exact limits depend on the formulation and should follow the supplier's documentation.
Identity and purity are normally assessed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, which separates the peptide from related impurities and truncation products. Mass spectrometry confirms molecular mass and detects modifications such as deamidation or oxidation. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping provide additional sequence-level confirmation. For research material, a certificate of analysis typically reports these results together with water content and counter-ion identity, since the lyophilized powder is often supplied as an acetate or trifluoroacetate salt.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 主要靶细胞 | T细胞、树突状细胞 | 也影响NK细胞 |
| 信号通路 | TLR/MyD88/NF-κB | 部分实验模型 |
| 细胞因子偏向 | Th1型 | 增加IL-2、IFN-γ |
| 给药途径 | 皮下注射 | 临床常用 |
| 半衰期 | 约2小时 | 血浆中较短 |
The peptide occurs naturally in thymic tissue and has been detected in serum and other biological fluids. Reported concentrations are low, and reliable measurement generally requires immunoassay or mass spectrometry with an enrichment step. It is released from a larger precursor, prothymosin alpha, by proteolytic cleavage, although the enzymes involved are not fully characterized. Whether circulating levels reflect thymic output specifically remains an open question.
Thymosin alpha 1 is a 28-amino-acid peptide first isolated from thymosin fraction 5, a bovine thymic extract. Its sequence begins with an acetylated serine residue and carries a high proportion of acidic residues, so the molecule has a net negative charge near neutral pH. Despite the shared name, it is unrelated in sequence to the thymosin beta family. Synthetic material prepared by solid-phase peptide synthesis is identical in sequence to the natural peptide.
Several names appear in the literature for this peptide, including thymalfasin and the abbreviation T-alpha-1. Naming conventions differ among research articles, regulatory documents, and supplier catalogs, which complicates literature searches. Both synthetic and recombinant production routes yield a peptide with the same 28-residue sequence as the thymic isolate. Because the thymosin label also covers unrelated peptides, sources should be compared by sequence rather than by name alone.
Practical handling focuses on limiting adsorption and contamination. The peptide dissolves readily in water, and dilute solutions tend to adhere to plastic and glass surfaces, so an inert carrier protein or a defined buffer can reduce losses in laboratory work. Workers also record the counter-ion form, since an acetate or trifluoroacetate salt changes the mass balance of the weighed powder. Documentation of lot number, purity value, and storage history supports reproducibility when results from different laboratories are compared.
Lyophilized material is generally held at reduced temperature to slow degradation, and storage at minus twenty degrees Celsius or lower is common practice for long-term retention. Short-term working portions are often kept between two and eight degrees Celsius. Once dissolved, the peptide is less stable than the dry powder, and repeated freeze-thaw cycles are associated with loss of material and with aggregate formation. Vials are usually allowed to reach room temperature before opening so that condensation does not introduce moisture, and solutions are protected from light where practical.
Identity and purity are assessed mainly by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, which separates the peptide from closely related impurities and from truncated or oxidized variants. Mass spectrometry supplies the molecular mass and confirms the expected sequence length, while amino acid analysis can be used to check composition. Because the molecule has no chromophore beyond the peptide backbone, ultraviolet detection is typically performed at a low wavelength, where baseline interference from solvents and buffers is a practical concern. Water content and counter-ion content are often reported alongside purity.
Identity and purity are usually checked by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, which separates the intact chain from truncated products, together with mass spectrometry for confirmation of the expected mass. Peptide mapping after enzymatic digestion and amino acid analysis add sequence-level evidence. Release testing also covers water content, residual solvents, and counter-ions, all of which influence measured mass and stability. Related-peptide limits are commonly expressed as a percentage of total peak area, with individual unspecified impurities held below a lower threshold.
The lyophilized peptide is a white to off-white powder that dissolves freely in water and in aqueous buffers near neutral pH. Because the molecule carries a net negative charge under physiological conditions, saline and phosphate solutions are the usual vehicles, while strongly acidic media are avoided. Stock solutions are commonly divided into small aliquots so that repeated freezing and thawing can be limited, since cycling may encourage aggregation. Solubility in organic solvents is poor and those solvents are seldom used as primary diluents.
Recommended storage for the dry powder is a freezer near minus twenty degrees Celsius, kept desiccated and away from light. Once dissolved, the peptide is less stable and is usually held at two to eight degrees Celsius for short intervals or frozen for longer storage. Stability studies focus on the acetylated terminus and the disulfide linkage because those features define the intact molecule. Common degradation routes include cysteine oxidation, deamidation of asparagine or glutamine side chains, and slow formation of higher-molecular-weight species.
A fibrocyte is an inactive mesenchymal cell, that is, a cell showing minimal cytoplasm, limited amounts of rough endoplasmic reticulum, and lacks biochemical evidence of protein synthesis. The term fibrocyte contrasts with the term fibroblast. Fibroblasts are activated connective tissue cells characterized by synthesis of proteins of the fibrous matrix, particularly the collagens. When tissue is injured, the predominant mesenchymal cells, the fibroblast, have been believed to be derived from the fibrocyte or possibly from smooth muscle cells lining vessels and glands. Commonly, fibroblasts express smooth muscle actin, a form of actin first found in smooth muscle cells and not found in resting fibrocytes. Fibroblasts expressing this form of actin are usually called "myo-fibroblasts." Recently, the term "fibrocyte" has also been applied to a bloodborne cell able to leave the blood, enter tissue and become a fibroblast. As part of the more general topic of stem cell biology, a number of studies have suggested that the blood contains marrow derived cells that can differentiate into fibroblasts. These cells have been reported to express the hematopoietic cell surface markers CD34+, CD45+, as well as collagen. These cells can migrate to wound sites, suggesting a role in wound healing. There are several studies suggesting that fibrocytes mediate wound healing and fibrotic tissue repair.
== References == "Trichopsis vittata". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 11 March 2006. Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Trichopsis vittata". FishBase. February 2014 version. Ladich, F., W. Brtittenger, and H. Kratochvil (1992). Significance Of Agonistic Vocalization In The Croaking Gourami. Shafland, P. L. (1996). "Exotic Fishes of Florida-1994". Reviews in Fisheries Science 4(2). Sterba, G. (1983). The Aquarium Fish Encyclopedia. The MIT Press.
Radiocarbon dating has established that the shroud is medieval, and not from the time of Jesus. Independent radiocarbon dating tests were carried out in 1988 at the University of Oxford, the University of Arizona and the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, following years of discussion to obtain permission from the Holy See. The tests were done on portions of a swatch taken from a corner of the shroud, and concluded with 95% confidence that the material dated to AD 1260–1390. The dating matches the first appearance of the shroud in church history. This dating is also slightly more recent than that estimated by the art historian W. S. A. Dale, who postulated on artistic grounds that the shroud is an 11th-century icon made for use in worship services. Some proponents for the authenticity of the shroud have attempted to discount the radiocarbon dating result by claiming that the sample may represent a medieval "invisible mending" repair fragment rather than the image-bearing cloth. However, all of the hypotheses used to challenge the radiocarbon dating have been scientifically refuted, including the medieval repair hypothesis, the bio-contamination hypothesis and the carbon monoxide hypothesis. In recent years, the radiocarbon dating data have been repeatedly statistically analysed in attempts to draw some conclusions about the reliability of the radiocarbon dating from studying the data rather than studying the shroud itself.
== Toxicity == Since 2016, G. biloba extract is classified as a possible human carcinogen (group 2B) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. When eaten in large quantities or over a long period, the seeds may cause poisoning by ginkgotoxin (4'-O-methylpyridoxine, MPN), as found in a few case reports. A heat-stable compound not destroyed by cooking, MPN may cause convulsions, which were alleviated by treatment with pyridoxine phosphate (vitamin B6), according to limited studies. Some people are sensitive to the chemicals in the sarcotesta, the outer fleshy coating. These people should handle the seeds with care, wearing disposable gloves, when preparing them for consumption. The symptoms are allergic contact dermatitis, or blisters similar to that caused by contact with poison ivy. Side effects of using ginkgo supplements may include increased risk of bleeding, gastrointestinal discomfort, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headaches, dizziness, heart palpitations, and restlessness. Although use of standardized Ginkgo biloba leaf extracts in moderate amounts appears to be safe, excessive use may have undesirable effects, especially in terms of drug interactions. The dosing of anticoagulants, such as warfarin or antiplatelet medication, may be adversely affected by using ginkgo supplements. According to a systematic review, the effects of ginkgo on pregnant women may include increased bleeding time, and there is inadequate information about safety during lactation. Ginkgo pollen may produce allergic reactions. G.
"Machine Cleans Blood While You Wait"—1950 article on early use of dialysis machine at Bellevue Hospital New York City—an example of how complex and large early dialysis machines were Home Dialysis Museum—History and pictures of dialysis machines through time Introduction to Dialysis Machines—Tutorial describing the main subfunctions of dialysis systems. "First Nations man conducts own dialysis treatments to avoid move to the city"—CBC News (November 30, 2016)
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Taruc and others claimed that civilian guards and government officials were "sabotaging the peace process". On August 24, 1946, Feleo was stopped by a large band of "armed men in fatigue uniforms" in Gapan, Nueva Ecija. He had planned to present the peasant's concerns to the Secretary of the Interior Jose Zulueta, before he was taken and killed. Thousands of Huk veterans and PKM members were sure that Feleo was murdered by landlords, or possibly the Roxas administration itself. The incident led to Taruc joining the peasants and re-igniting the insurrection. The Roxas administration then outlawed the Hukbalahap on March 6, 1948. In 1949, Hukbalahap members ambushed and murdered Aurora Quezon, Chairman of the Philippine Red Cross and widow of the Philippines' second president, Manuel L. Quezon, as she was en route to her hometown for the dedication of the Quezon Memorial Hospital. Several others were also killed, including her eldest daughter and son-in-law. This attack brought worldwide condemnation of the Huks, who claimed that the attack was done by "renegade" members. The continuing condemnation and new post-war causes of the movement prompted the Huk leaders to adopt a new name, the "Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan" or the "People's Liberation Army" in 1950. Public sympathies for the movement had been waning due to their postwar attacks. The Huks confiscated funds and property to sustain their movement and relied on small village organizers for political and material support.
Ants also are quite popular inspiration for many science fiction insectoids, such as the Formics of Ender's Game, the Bugs of Starship Troopers, the giant ants in the films Them! and Empire of the Ants, Marvel Comics' super hero Ant-Man, and ants mutated into super-intelligence in Phase IV. In computer strategy games, ant-based species often benefit from increased production rates due to their single-minded focus, such as the Klackons in the Master of Orion series of games or the ChCht in Deadlock II. These characters are often credited with a hive mind, a common misconception about ant colonies. In the early 1990s, the video game SimAnt, which simulated an ant colony, won the 1992 Codie award for "Best Simulation Program".
=== Turkey === The first therapies in Turkey using 177Lu-DOTATATE PRRT were carried out in early 2014, for treatment of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (GEP-NETs) at the Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa.
== Complications == Vaginal support structures can be damaged or weakened during childbirth or pelvic surgery. Other conditions that repeatedly strain or increase pressure in the pelvic area can also compromise support. Examples are:
=== Laboratory findings === Hormonal syndromes should be confirmed with laboratory testing. Laboratory findings in Cushing syndrome include increased serum glucose (blood sugar) and increased urine cortisol. Adrenal virilism is confirmed by the finding of an excess of serum androstenedione and dehydroepiandrosterone. Findings in Conn syndrome include low serum potassium, low plasma renin activity, and high serum aldosterone. Feminization is confirmed with the finding of excess serum estrogen.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Isotretinoin is a teratogen highly likely to cause birth defects if taken by women during pregnancy or even a short time before conception. A few of the more common birth defects this drug can cause are hearing and visual impairment, missing or malformed earlobes, facial dysmorphism, and abnormalities in brain function. Isotretinoin is classified as FDA Pregnancy Category X and ADEC Category X, and use is contraindicated in pregnancy. In the EU, isotretinoin (oral) is contraindicated in pregnancy and must not be taken by women able to have children unless the conditions of a pregnancy prevention program are met. The manufacturer recommends pregnancy be ruled out two weeks before commencement of isotretinoin, and women should use two simultaneous forms of effective contraception at least one month before commencement, during, and for at least one month following isotretinoin therapy. In the US, around 2000 women became pregnant while taking the drug between 1982 and 2000, with most pregnancies ending in abortion or miscarriage. About 160 babies with birth defects were born. After the FDA put the more strict iPLEDGE program in place for the companies marketing the drug in the US, in 2011, 155 pregnancies occurred (0.12%) among 129,544 women of childbearing potential taking isotretinoin. People taking isotretinoin are advised against donating blood during and for at least one month after treatment due to its teratogenicity.
Myxedema's characteristic physical sign is non-pitting edema, in contrast to pitting edema. Myxedema can also occur in the lower leg (pretibial myxedema) and behind the eyes (exophthalmos). Severe cases, requiring hospitalization can exhibit signs of hypothermia, hypoglycemia, hypotension, respiratory depression, and coma.
is the chemical potential in the standard state, R is the gas constant T is the absolute temperature, and Aj is the activity. For a closed system, no particles may enter or leave, although they may combine in various ways. The total number of atoms of each element will remain constant. This means that the minimization above must be subjected to the constraints:
Artifacts found outside their original context (ex situ), often due to natural disturbances or amateur excavations, have less interpretive value, but may provide clues about the spatial distribution and typological characteristics of unexcavated in situ deposits, guiding future excavation efforts. The Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage sets mandatory guidelines for signatory states regarding the treatment of underwater shipwrecks. One of its main principles is that in situ preservation is the preferred approach. This policy is based on the unique conditions of underwater environments, where low oxygen levels and stable temperatures help preserve artifacts over long periods. Removing artifacts from these conditions and exposing them to the atmosphere often accelerates deterioration, particularly the oxidation of iron-based materials. In mortuary archaeology, in situ documentation involves systematically recording and cataloging human remains in their original depositional positions. These remains are often embedded in complex matrices of sediment, clothing, and associated artifacts. Excavating mass graves presents additional challenges, as they may contain hundreds of individuals. Before identifying individuals or determining causes of death, archaeologists must carefully document spatial relationships and contextual details to preserve forensic and historical information.
Biko is viewed as the "father" of the Black Consciousness Movement and the anti-apartheid movement's first icon. Nelson Mandela called him "the spark that lit a veld fire across South Africa", adding that the Nationalist government "had to kill him to prolong the life of apartheid". Opening an anthology of his work in 2008, Manning Marable and Peniel Joseph wrote that his death had "created a vivid symbol of black resistance" to apartheid that "continues to inspire new black activists" over a decade after the transition to majority rule. Johann de Wet, a professor of communication studies, described him as "one of South Africa's most gifted political strategists and communicators". In 2004 he was elected 13th in SABC 3's Great South Africans public poll. Although Biko's ideas have not received the same attention as Frantz Fanon's, in 2001 Ahluwalia and Zegeye wrote that the men shared "a highly similar pedigree in their interests in the philosophical psychology of consciousness, their desire for a decolonising of the mind, the liberation of Africa and in the politics of nationalism and socialism for the 'wretched of the earth'". Some academics argue that Biko's thought remains relevant; for example, in African Identities in 2015, Isaac Kamola wrote that Biko's critique of white liberalism was relevant to situations like the United Nations' Millennium Development Goals and Invisible Children, Inc.'s KONY 2012 campaign.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
它促进未成熟T细胞分化并增强成熟T细胞的增殖与细胞因子分泌。这些作用有助于放大抗原特异性免疫应答。
目前认为它可能通过Toll样受体等模式识别受体传递信号，但精确的受体身份和结合机制尚未完全阐明。
不同试验在患者选择、给药方案、联合治疗和终点定义上差异很大。这些异质性使得跨研究比较困难，结论难以统一。
Dry lyophilized powder tolerates short ambient exposure during handling and shipping. Long-term room-temperature storage is not recommended because moisture uptake and slow degradation can occur over months. Storage at minus twenty degrees Celsius is the common practice for extended periods.